Primary Sources

Every Evidence Library entry flagged as a primary source — inscriptions, manuscripts, coins, papyri, and documents from the period itself.

• Coins

  The Standing Caliph Dinar

  A transitional gold coin type issued under Abd al-Malik depicting the caliph before the 77 AH reform replaced all figural imagery with epigraphy.

• Dome of the Rock

  The Dome of the Rock Inscriptions (72 AH / 691–692 CE)

  A monumental Kufic inscription band, roughly 240 meters long, running around the interior and exterior arcades of the Dome of the Rock: the earliest securely dated substantial body of Qur'anic-related text.

• Early Manuscripts

  The Sana'a Palimpsest

  A Qur'anic manuscript with an earlier, partially erased layer of text (Sana'a I) beneath the standard text, radiocarbon-dated among the oldest surviving Qur'anic manuscripts.

• Primary Sources

  The Constitution of Medina

  A set of clauses, preserved in Ibn Ishaq's biography of Muhammad, establishing relations between the Emigrants, the Medinan Muslims, and Medina's Jewish tribes shortly after the hijra.