?–644 CE · Second Rashidun caliph

Umar ibn al-Khattab

Umar's rulings on land taxation (kharaj) in conquered territories and his suspension of the hadd punishment for theft during famine are frequently cited as early instances of caliphal discretionary legal judgment (ra'y) rather than transmission of a specific Prophetic report. Later sources also credit his administration with appointing Umm al-Shifa bint Abdullah to a supervisory role over the Medina market, though the chain of transmission for that specific report is rated weak by classical hadith critics.

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Research Paper
Women in Mainstream Islam: Protection, Restriction, and the Historical Development of Religious Practice
A historical-critical review testing whether practices commonly described as Islamic requirements for women — segregation, face-veiling, travel guardianship, exclusion from mosques and public office — rest on the Qur'an itself or on later hadith, jurisprudence, dynastic custom, and regional practice.

Umar ibn al-Khattab

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Women in Mainstream Islam: Protection, Restriction, and the Historical Development of Religious Practice